[ from 1728 edn. of the Cyclopædia ]

DESIGN, or Draught, with regard to the Arts and Sciences, signifies the Thought, Plan, Geometrical Representation, Distribution, and Construction of a Painting, Poem Book, or Building.

This Painter has shewn the first Design of his Piece, in which the Figures are well disposed. The Design of that Poem, or Book, is artfully laid.

Claudian never sees his whole Design together: When he composes a Part, he thinks of nothing else; and works up every Member, as if it were separate from all the rest.

In Building, one may use the term Ichnography, when by Design is only meant the Plan of a Building, or a flat Figure drawn on Paper. See ICHNOGRAPHY.

Orthography, when some Face, or Side of the Building is rais’d from the Ground. See ORTHOGRAPHY.

And Scenography, when both Front and Sides are seen in Perspective. See SCENOGRAPHY.

DESIGN, in the Manufactories, the Figures wherewith the Workman enriches his Stuff, or Silk; and which he copies after some Painter.

In undertaking such Kinds of figured Stuffs, ’tis necessary, that before the first Stroak of the Shuttle, the whole Design be represented on the Threads of the Warp; we don’t mean in Colours, but with an infinite Number of little Pack-threads, which, being disposed so as to raise the Threads of the Warp, let the Painter see from Time to Time what Kind of Silk is to be put in the Eye of the Shuttle, for Woof.

This Method of preparing the Work, is call’d reading the Design, or reading the Figure; which is perform’d after the following Manner.

A Paper is provided considerably broader than the Stuff, and of a Length proportionate to what is intended to be represented thereon. This they divide lengthwise, by as many black Lines as there are intended to be Threads in the Warp; and cross these Lines, by others drawn breadth-wise; which with the former make little equal Squares. On the Paper thus squared, the Painter designs his Figures, and heightens them with Colours as he sees fit. When the Design is finish’d, a Workman reads it, while another lays it on the Simblot.

Now, to read the Design, is to tell the Person, who manages the Loom, the Number of Squares, or Threads comprised in the Space he is reading; intimating at the same Time, whether it is Ground, or Figure.

To put what is read on the Simblot, is to fasten little Strings to the several Pack-Threads, which are to raise the Threads named. And thus they continue to do, till the whole Design is read.

Every Piece being composed of several Repetitions of the same Design; when the whole Design is drawn, the Drawer, to re-begin, as I may say, the Design a-fresh, has nothing to do but raise the little Strings with Slip-knots to the Top of the Simblot, which he had let down to the Bottom. And this he is to repeat as often as is necessary, till the Whole be manufactured.

The Ribband-Weavers have likewise a Design, but much more simple than that now described. ’Tis drawn on Paper, with Lines, and Squares, representing the Threads of the Warp, and Woof. But in lieu of Lines, whereof the Figures of the former consist, these only consist of Points, or Dots, placed in certain of the little Squares, form’d by the intersection of the Lines. These Points mark the Threads of the Warp that are to be rais’d; and the Spaces left blank, design the Threads that are to keep their situation. The rest is manag’d as in the former.

DESIGN, is particularly used in Painting, for the first Idea of a large Work drawn roughly, and in little; with Intention to be executed, and finish’d in large. See PAINTING.

In this simple Sense, the Design is the simple Contour, or Outline of the Figures, or Things intended to be represented, or the Lines that terminate, and circumscribe them. See CONTOUR, and DESIGNING.

Such Design is sometimes drawn in Crayons, or Ink, without any Shadows at all: Sometimes it is hatch’d, that is, the Shadows are express’d by sensible Lines, usually drawn across each other with the Pen, Crayon, or Graver. Sometimes, again, the Shadows are done with the Crayon rubb’d, so as there does not appear any Lines: Sometimes, the Grain, or Strokes of the Crayon appear, as not being rubb’d: Sometimes the Design is wash’d, that is, the Shadows are done with a Pencil, in Indian Ink, or some other Liquor: And sometimes the Design is colour’d, that is, Colours are laid on, much like those intended for the Grand Work.

The Qualities, or Parts required in a Design, are Correctness, Good Taste, Elegance, Character, Diversity, Expression, and Perspective.

Correctness depends principally on the Justness of the Proportions, and a Knowledge of Anatomy. Taste is an Idea, or Manner of Designing, which arises either from the Complexion and natural Disposition, or from Education, the Masters, Studies, &c. Elegance gives the Figures a Kind of Delicacy, which strikes People of Judgment, and a certain Agreeableness, which pleases every body. The Character is what is peculiar to each Thing; In which there must be a Diversity; in as much as every Thing has its particular Character, to distinguish it. The Expression is the Representation of an Object according to its Character, and the several Circumstances it is supposed to be in. The Perspective is the Representation of the Parts of a Painting, or Figure, according to the Situation they are in, with respect to the Point of Sight.

The Design, or Draught, is a Part of the greatest Import, and Extent in Painting. ’Tis acquired chiefly by Habit and Application; Rules being of less Avail here than in any of the other Branches of the Art, as Colouring, Clair-Obscure, Expression, &c.

The principal Rules that regard the Design, are: That Novices accustom themselves to copy good Originals at first Sight: Not to use Squares in drawing; for Fear of stinting and confining their Judgment: To stay till they can design well after the Life ’ere they begin the Practice of Perspective Rules: In Designing after the Life, to learn to adjust the Bigness of their Figures to the visual Angle, and the Distance of the Eye, from the Model or Object: To mark out all the Parts of their Design, before they begin to shadow: To make their Contours in great Pieces, without taking Notice of the little Muscles, and other Breaks: To make themselves Masters of the Rules of Perspective: To observe every Stroak as to its perpendicular Parallel, and Distance; and particularly so to compare, and oppose the Parts that meet upon, and traverse the Perpendicular, as to form a Kind of Square, in the Mind; which is the great, and almost the only Rule of Designing justly: To have a regard not only to the Model, but also to the Part already design’d; there being no such Thing as designing with strict Justness, but by comparing, and proportioning every Part to the first.

The rest relates to Perspective: As, that those Objects are seen at one View, whose Rays meet in a Point: That the Eye and Object be always conceiv’d as immoveable: That the Space, or Medium between them, be conceiv’d transparent: And that the Eye, Object, and Picture, be at a just Distance; which is usually double the Bigness of the Subject, or Picture. See PERSPECTIVE.

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[ from 1783–6 edn. of the Cyclopædia ]

DESIGN, from designo, I mark out, the plan, or representation of the order, general distribution, and construction of a painting, poem, book, building, or the like.

The painter has shewn the first design of his piece, in which the figures are well disposed. The design of that poem, or book, is artfully laid. Claudian never sees his whole design together: when he composes a part, he thinks of nothing else, and works up every member, as if it were separate from all the rest.

In building we use the term ICHNOGRAPHY, when by design is only meant the plan of a building, or a flat figure drawn on paper. ORTHOGRAPHY, when some face, or side, of the building, is raised from the ground. And SCENOGRAPHY, when both front and sides are seen in perspective.

DESIGN, in Weaving Manufactories, expresses the figures wherewith the workman enriches his stuff, or silk; and which he copies after some painter or draughtsman.

In undertaking such kinds of figured stuffs, it is necessary, that, before the first stroke of the shuttle, the whole design be represented on the threads of the warp; we do not mean in colours, but with an infinite number of little packthreads, which, being disposed so as to raise the threads of the warp, let the workman see, from time to time, what kind of silk is to be put into the eye of the shuttle, for woof.

This method of preparing the work, is called reading the design, or reading the figure, which is performed after the following manner. A paper is provided, considerably broader than the stuff, and of a length proportionate to that which is intended to be represented thereon. This they divide lengthwise, by as many black lines as there are intended to be threads in the warp; and cross these lines by others drawn breadthwise, which, with the former, make little equal squares. On the paper thus squared the painter designs his figures, and heightens them with colours, as he thinks fit. When the design is finished, a workman reads it, while another lays it on the simblot.

Now, to read the design, is to tell the person who manages the loom, the number of squares, of threads, comprised in the space he is reading; intimating, at the same time, whether it is ground or figure.

To put what is read on the simblot, is to fasten little strings to the several packthreads which are to raise the threads named. And thus they continue to do until the whole design is read.

Every piece being composed of several repetitions of the same design, when the whole design is drawn, the drawer, to re-being, as I may say, the design afresh, has nothing to do, but to raise the little strings, with slip-knots, to the top of the simblot, which he had let down to the bottom; and this he is to repeat as often as is necessary, till the whole be manufactured.

The ribband-weavers have likewise a design, but much more simple than that now described: it is drawn on paper, with lines and squares, representing the threads of the warp, and woof. But in lieu of lines, whereof the figures of the former consist, these only consist of points or dots, placed in certain of the little squares formed by the intersections of the lines; these points mark the threads of the warp that are to be raised, and the spaces left blank denote the threads that are to keep their situation. The rest is managed as in the former.

DESIGN is particularly used, in Painting, for the first idea of a large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with intention to be executed, and finished in large.

In this sense, the design is the simple contour, or outlines, of the figures, or things intended to be represented, or the lines that terminate and circumscribe them.

Such a design is sometimes drawn in crayons, or ink, without any shadows at all: sometimes it is hatched, that is, the shadows are expressed by sensible lines, usually drawn across each other with the pen, crayon, or graver. Sometimes, again, the shadows are done with the crayon rubbed, so that there do not appear any lines; sometimes the grain, or strokes of the crayon, appear, as not being rubbed; sometimes the design is washed, that is, the shadows are done with a pencil in Indian ink, or some other liquor; and sometimes the design is coloured, that is, colours are laid on much like those intended for the grand work.

The qualities, or conditions, required in a design, are correctness, good taste, elegance, character, diversity, expression, and perspective.

Correctness depends principally on the justness of the proportions, and a knowledge of anatomy. Taste is as idea or manner of designing, which arises either from the complexion, and natural disposition, or from education, one’s master, studies, &c. Elegance gives the figures a kind of delicacy which strikes people of judgment, and a certain agreeableness, which pleases every body. The character, is what is peculiar to each thing, in which there must be a diversity; in as much as every thing has its peculiar character to distinguish it. The expression, is the representation of an object according to its character, and the several circumstances it is supposed to be in. The perspective is the representation of the parts of a painting, or figure, according to the situation they are in, with respect to the point of sight.

The design, or draught, is a part of the greatest import and extent in painting: it is acquired chiefly by habit and application, rules being of less avail here than in any of the other branches of the art, as colouring, clair-obscure, expression, &c.

The principal rules that regard the design are, that novices accustom themselves to copy good originals at first sight; not to use squares in drawing, for fear of stinting and confining their judgment; to stay till they can design well after the life, before they being the practice of perspective rules; in designing after the life, to learn to adjust the bigness of their figures to the visual angle, and the distance of the eye from the model, or object; to mark out all the parts of the design, before they being to shadow; to make their contours in great pieces, without taking notice of the little muscles, and other breaks; to make themselves masters of the rules of perspective; to observe every stroke, as to its perpendicular, parallel, and distance; and particularly so to compare, and oppose the parts that meet upon, and traverse the perpendicular, as to form a kind of square in the mind, which is the great, and almost the only rule of designing justly; to have a regard, not only to the model, but also to the part already designed, there being no such thing as designing with strict justness, but by comparing and proportioning every part to the first.

The rest relates to perspective: as, that those objects be seen at one view, whose rays meet in a point; that the eye and object be always conceived as immoveable; that the space, or medium between them, be conceived transparent; and that the eye, object, and picture, be at a just distance, which is usually double the bigness of the subject, or picture. See DESIGNING, and PERSPECTIVE.

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DESIGNING, the Art of Delineating, or Drawing the Appearance of natural Objects, by Lines, on a Plane. See DESIGN.

To design according to the Rules of Mathematicks, makes the Subject of perspective. See PERSPECTIVE, and SCENOGRAPHY.

To design by the Camera Obscura. See CAMERA Obscura.

     A Mechanical Method of DESIGNING Objects.

Provide a square Piece of Glass fitted into a Frame, A B D C, (Tab. Perspective Fig. 9.) and wash, or smear it over with Water, wherein a little Gum has been dissolved. When ’tis well dried again, turn it towards the Object, or Objects to be design’d, so as that the Whole thereof may be seen through a Dioptra, or Sight G H, fix’d thereto. Then proceed to work; and applying the Eye to the Sight, with a Pen and Ink draw every Thing on the Glass, as you see it appear thereon. Having finish’d the Draught, lay a fair, moist Paper thereon; and pressing it pretty tight down, the whole will be transferr’d from the Glass to the Paper. This Method is very good, easy, and exact; and deserves to be more used by Painters.

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DESIGNING, the art of delineating or drawing the appearance of natural objects, by lines, on a plane.

To design, according to the rules of mathematics, makes the object of perspective.

To design by the camera obscura, see CAMERA obscura.

Mechanical method of DESIGNING objects. Provide a square piece of glass, fitted into a frame, A B D C (Tab. Perspective, fig. 1.); and wash and smear it over with water, wherein a little gum has been dissolved. When it is well dried again, turn it towards the object or objects to be designed, so as that the whole thereof may be seen through a dioptra, or sight G H, fixed thereto: then proceed to work, and, applying the eye to the sight, with a pen and ink draw every thing on the glass, as you see it appear thereon: or the outlines of the objects may be drawn with black colour in drying oil. Having finished the draught, lay a fair moist paper thereon; and, pressing it pretty tight down, the whole will be transferred from the glass to the paper. This method is very good, easy, and exact, and deserves to be more used by painters. Some have used a piece of tiffany or fine lawn; and others, paper made transparent by means of oil of turpentine, instead of the glass: and the outlines of the object are traced out by a crayon, formed of white or red chalk, charcoal, or any proper substance. If tiffany or lawn be used, they must be carefully laid on paper or vellum, and struck in every part with some flat body; by which means the matter of the crayon will be transferred from the old to the new ground; and the impression should be overtraced with a black lead pencil. The sketch on transparent paper may be transmitted to any ground, by puncturing it with holes near each other in the lines of the drawing, then fixing it on the ground, and dusting over it black lead, or any other coloured matter finely powdered, and tied up in a fine linen cloth. This dust will mark a sketch on the new ground, so that it may be over-traced by any kind of pencil or crayon.

The eye may be assisted in designing from nature by means of a place divided into squares, which is formed by drawing cross lines, parallel to each other, on a tiffany or lawn framed; or on transparent paper or glass. This may be done with common writing ink, or in any other way that will render the lines visible; and the divided plane must be placed before the sight-board, as already directed. The ground, on which the sketch is to be taken, must be also formed into an equal number of squares; and the objects, thus seen through the squares of the transparent plane, will be easily disposed in their proper situation, and formed of a just magnitude, by placing them in the correspondent square of the ground: or, a frame may be prepared of a proper size, and the area of it divided into squares, by threads of a moderate thickness. A portable machine may be easily contrived for supporting the frame of the transparent plane, and the sight-board: this machine may be constructed by joining three legs together, in the manner of the surveyor’s instruments, in a block; and fixing the frame, by means of a sliding foot, into the same box, that it may be raised higher or lower. The sight-board must have a foot likewise, by which it might be raised higher or lower; though this must not be fixed into the block, but into a sliding piece, which must pass through the block horizontally; so that the foot of the sight-board being fixed into it at right angles, the board may be brought nearer to, or drawn farther from, the transparent plane at pleasure.

The following apparatus was used by Sir Christopher Wren for the purpose of designing. A is a small sight with a short arm B (see Tab. Perspective, fig. 2.) which may be turned round about, and moved up and down on the small cylinder C D, which is screwed into E D at D: this piece E D moving round about the centre E, by which means the sight may be removed either towards E or F. E F is a ruler fastened on the two rulers G G, which rulers serve both to keep the square frame S S S S perpendicular, and, by sliding through the square holes T T, to stay the sight, either nearer to or farther from the said frame; on which frame is stuck on with a little wax the paper O O O O, on which the picture is to be drawn by the pen I. This pen I is so fixed, by a small brass handle V, to the ruler H H, that the point I may be kept very firm, so as always to touch the paper. H H is a ruler, that is always moved horizontally, or parallel to itself, by means of the small strings a a a, b b b; at the end of this ruler, is stuck a small pin, whose head P is the sight, which is to be moved up and down on the outlines of any object. The two strings a a a, b b b, are exactly of an equal length. Two ends of them are fastened into a small leaden weight, which is moved in a socket on the back side of the frame, and serves exactly to counterpoise the ruler H H: the other two ends are fastened to two small pins H H, after they have rolled about the small pullies M M, L L, K K; by means of which pullies, if the pen I be taken hold of and moved up and down the paper, the strings moving very easily, the ruler will always remain in an horizontal position. When the instrument is used, it is set upon a table, and the sight A is fixed at any height above the table, and at any distance from the frame S S S S, at pleasure. Then the designer, looking through the sight A, and holding the pen I in his hand, moves the head of the pin P up and down, over the outlines of the object, and the point I will describe, on the paper O O O O, the shape of the object so traced.

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Related Cyclopædia illustrations

^ Tab. Perspective, plate from vol. 2 of Chambers’ Cyclopædia (1st edn., 1728)

The plate referred to in Chambers’ article on Designing was separately located in vol. 2 of the first edn. of the Cyclopædia (with the article on “Perspective”), while the text on “Design” and “Designing” was located in vol. 1. Articles were arranged alphabetically, with articles falling between A – HYT in vol. 1, and articles falling between JA – ZYT in vol. 2.

The illustration of “a mechanical method of designing objects,” referred to by Chambers as Fig. 9, is here called out as Fig. 15, and shown at bottom right of the plate on Perspective. See below detail.

^ Tab. Perspective, plate from vol. 5 of Chambers’ Cyclopædia (8th edn., 1783–6)

The plate referred to in the newly-enlarged article on designing, as supplemented by Abraham Rees, was separately located in vol. 5 of the Cyclopædia, while the text was on design was located in vol. 2. For this greatly expanded 8th edn., “most of the old Plates” from the original Cyclopædia were engraved anew, and collocated in vol. 5 with the many “new engravings” added by Rees.

What Rees refers to here as Fig. 1 of Tab. Perspective was, in the original Chambers, Fig. 9/15.

^ Detail of Figs. 1 and 2 from Perspective plate (8th edn., 1783–6)

Fig. 2 — the scenographic “apparatus ... used by Sir Christopher Wren for the purpose of designing” (an instrument for tracing views on paper using a movable sight linked to a pen) — was added by Rees when he updated Chambers’ original article on Designing in 1784, but was most likely adapted from material in Chambers’ own MSS., left unpublished when he died in 1740.

^ Detail of Fig. 15 from Perspective plate (1st edn., 1728)

Chambers mistakenly refers to this in his article on Designing as Fig. 9.

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